Understanding Twice-exceptionality: The Duality of Strengths and Challenges
- Amelia Loveland
- Oct 3, 2025
- 17 min read
Updated: Dec 21, 2025
Navigating the Intersection of Giftedness, Neurodiversity, and Educational Support
(The Rabbit Hole Dive)
Abstract
Twice-exceptionality (2e) represents a complex intersection where giftedness coexists with neurodivergent conditions such as autism, ADHD, or specific learning differences. This comprehensive report examines the current understanding of twice-exceptionality through a neurodiversity-affirming lens, exploring identification challenges and educational approaches (Ronksley-Pavia, 2015). The evidence reveals that twice-exceptional individuals possess remarkable strengths alongside genuine support needs, requiring educational systems that recognise and nurture both aspects simultaneously.
The literature demonstrates that traditional deficit-focused approaches are inadequate for twice-exceptional learners, who benefit from strengths-based, talent-focused support that honours their complex profiles (Baum et al., 2014). A paradigm shift towards neurodiversity-affirming practices is essential for optimising outcomes, requiring systemic changes in policy, practice, and professional preparation.
This report synthesises evidence from contemporary research to provide comprehensive guidance for educators, families, policymakers, and researchers working with twice-exceptional individuals. The findings emphasise the need for multidisciplinary approaches, sophisticated assessment practices, and innovative educational programming that celebrates cognitive diversity while providing necessary accommodations and support.
Introduction
The concept of twice-exceptionality challenges fundamental assumptions about human cognitive profiles and educational provision. When exceptional ability intersects with neurological differences such as autism, ADHD, or specific learning differences, the resulting profiles defy traditional categorisation and demand sophisticated understanding from all stakeholders involved in supporting these individuals.
Twice-exceptional learners embody the complexity of human neurodiversity, demonstrating that cognitive strengths and challenges can coexist in ways that create both significant opportunities and barriers (Trail, 2022). These individuals may display advanced reasoning abilities alongside executive function differences, exceptional creative thinking coupled with social communication differences, or remarkable domain-specific talents while experiencing processing variations that affect academic performance.
This comprehensive report adopts a neurodiversity-affirming perspective that recognises neurological differences as natural variations rather than differences requiring accommodation (Walker, 2021). By employing identity-first language throughout, we acknowledge that being autistic, having ADHD, or experiencing learning differences are integral aspects of individual identity, not merely conditions to be managed or overcome.
The evidence base for twice-exceptionality has expanded dramatically in recent years, with researchers exploring everything from neurobiological mechanisms to educational supports, family experiences to policy implications (Abraham, 2025). This report synthesises this growing body of knowledge to provide practical guidance for supporting twice-exceptional individuals across their lifespan.
Historical Development and Conceptual Evolution
Early Recognition and Foundational Work
The concept of twice-exceptionality (2e), which describes individuals with both exceptional abilities and learning challenges, has a historical lineage in educational scholarship. Early figures in gifted education, such as Lewis Terman (1925) and Leta Hollingworth (1923), noted the existence of highly capable children who also faced learning difficulties (Hoillingworth, 1923; Terman, 1925). However, the systematic investigation into this intersection only began decades later.
The formal framework for twice-exceptionality emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, largely driven by the efforts of families and educators who recognised that existing educational categories did not adequately describe these complex learners (Whitmore, 1980). Contemporary researchers like Susan Baum and Linda Silverman built upon this foundation, providing more recent foundational work and documenting the unique characteristics and needs of 2e students (Baum et al., 2014; Silverman, 2013).
Paradigmatic Shifts in Understanding
The evolution of twice-exceptionality conceptualisation reflects broader paradigmatic shifts in both gifted education and disability studies:
Deficit-Focused Models (1970s-1990s) emphasised remediating weaknesses before addressing strengths, with sequential rather than simultaneous support approaches and limited recognition of the interaction between abilities and disabilities (Foley-Nicpon & Kim, 2018).
Dual-Exceptionality Models (1990s-2010s) brought recognition that strengths and challenges could coexist, leading to development of separate supports for each exceptionality, increased attention to identification challenges and masking phenomena, and emergence of specialised programming approaches (Trail, 2022).
Integrated, Neurodiversity-Affirming Models (2010s-Present) represent contemporary approaches that emphasise strengths-based support leveraging abilities to address challenges, recognition of neurological differences as natural variations, emphasis on environmental modifications rather than difference accommodation, and integration of talent development with accommodation provision(Baum et al., 2014)).
Contemporary Conceptualisations
Current definitions of twice-exceptionality reflect this evolutionary trajectory, moving from simple co-occurrence models to more sophisticated understandings of the dynamic interaction between abilities and differences. Contemporary conceptualisations emphasise multidimensional profiles that resist simple categorisation, dynamic interactions where strengths and challenges can amplify, mask, or modify each other’s expression, and contextual sensitivity acknowledging that characteristics may manifest differently across contexts. Importantly, these conceptualisations recognise identity integration, acknowledging that both exceptional abilities and neurological differences are integral aspects of individual identity (Ronksley-Pavia, 2015).
Theoretical Frameworks and Models
Comprehensive Theoretical Models
Several theoretical frameworks have emerged to explain the complex phenomena associated with twice-exceptionality, providing conceptual foundations for understanding, identifying, and supporting twice-exceptional individuals.
The Strengths and Weaknesses Model (S&W-Heuristic)
This model provides a systematic approach to understanding twice-exceptional profiles through comprehensive assessment of both strengths and weaknesses (Burger-Veltmeijer & Minnaert, 2023). It emphasises multidimensional assessment across cognitive, academic, social-emotional, and behavioural domains, recognition of dynamic interactions between strengths and weaknesses, and needs-based programming based on specific patterns identified through comprehensive assessment.
The Talent Development Model
This model emphasises the importance of identifying and nurturing specific talents while providing appropriate accommodations for challenges (Baum et al., 2014). Key components include systematic talent identification regardless of overall academic performance, environmental modification to support talent expression while minimising challenge impact, and development of self-advocacy skills. This framework is explored in depth in the Evidence-Based Support Approaches section.
The Neurodiversity Framework
Emerging from the broader neurodiversity movement, this framework reconceptualises twice-exceptionality within a social model that emphasises environmental barriers rather than individual differences (Botha et al., 2024; Walker, 2021). Core principles include the recognition of neurological differences as natural variations, environmental responsibility for accommodating differences rather than requiring conformity, identity affirmation validating neurodivergent identities as valuable aspects of diversity, and strength recognition acknowledging unique contributions of neurodivergent individuals.
Cognitive Processing Models
Research has identified executive functioning as a critical area where twice-exceptional individuals often experience challenges, even when demonstrating exceptional abilities in other domains (Foley-Nicpon & Kim, 2018). This framework examines working memory capacity, cognitive flexibility for shifting attention and adapting to changing demands, inhibitory control for suppressing irrelevant responses, and planning and organisation abilities for goal-setting and strategy development.
Understanding Twice-Exceptional Profiles
The Masking Phenomenon
The masking phenomenon in twice-exceptionality represents one of the most significant barriers to appropriate identification and support. This complex process involves the interaction between exceptional abilities and disabilities in ways that obscure the recognition of one or both exceptionalities.
Types of Masking
Research consistently documents three primary types of masking that complicate identification (Foley-Nicpon et al., 2013):
Giftedness Masking Disability
Exceptional cognitive abilities may compensate for underlying processing differences, resulting in average academic performance that masks both the giftedness and the disability.
Disability Masking Giftedness
Focusing on addressing learning or behavioural challenges may overshadow recognition of exceptional abilities, particularly when these abilities don’t translate directly into academic achievement.
Mutual Masking
In some cases, both giftedness and disability may be obscured, leading to identification as a typical learner despite the presence of both exceptionalities.
Cognitive Compensation Mechanisms
Research reveals several mechanisms through which twice-exceptional individuals may compensate for challenges, potentially masking their support needs (Atmaca & Baloğlu, 2022). These include strategic compensation through the development of sophisticated workaround strategies, cognitive flexibility using alternative pathways to achieve goals, and metacognitive awareness allowing individuals to monitor and adjust their performance.
Behavioural Masking Patterns
Twice-exceptional individuals may also employ behavioural strategies that mask their actual abilities or challenges (Ronksley-Pavia, 2015). These behavioural patterns include perfectionism creating excessive attention to detail that compensates for processing differences, social mimicry through careful observation and imitation of social behaviours, and academic avoidance of challenging tasks that might reveal learning differences.
Gender Differences in Masking
Research reveals significant gender differences in masking behaviours, with particular implications for the identification of twice-exceptional girls. Girls are more likely to exhibit internalising behaviours that may mask underlying exceptionalities, engage in social camouflaging behaviours, and display academic perfectionism that masks learning differences while creating stress (Blackburn & Townend, 2021).
Cultural and Linguistic Dimensions of Masking
Cultural factors may influence both the expression and recognition of masking behaviours. These include cultural values regarding achievement and conformity, communication styles that affect the recognition of differences, and linguistic considerations, where bilingual abilities may compensate for other processing differences (Castellano & Díaz, 2002).
Cognitive and Behavioural Patterns
Beyond masking, twice-exceptional individuals often display distinctive cognitive and behavioural patterns that reflect the interaction between their exceptional abilities and support needs. These include asynchronous development where different abilities develop at vastly different rates, intensity and sensitivity in emotional responses, sensory experiences, and intellectual engagement, creative thinking patterns that may not align with conventional problem-solving approaches, and executive function variability where planning and organisation may not match cognitive abilities.
Identification and Assessment
The Challenge of Identification
The identification of twice-exceptional learners represents one of the most complex challenges in educational assessment. Beyond the masking phenomenon described above, several additional factors complicate identification.
Statistical and Psychometric Challenges
Traditional psychometric approaches face several challenges when applied to twice-exceptional populations (Chen et al., 2023). These include reliance on composite scores that may obscure significant scatter between different cognitive abilities, normative assumptions based on neurotypical populations that may misinterpret neurodivergent responses, and cultural bias that may disadvantage individuals from diverse backgrounds.
Contemporary Assessment Approaches
Multidimensional Assessment Models
Current best practice emphasises comprehensive, multidimensional assessment that examines multiple domains of functioning (Foley-Nicpon & Kim, 2018). This includes cognitive assessment using measures that can identify both strengths and weaknesses, academic assessment across various domains with attention to patterns rather than overall performance, behavioural and social-emotional assessment of adaptive behaviour and social skills, and comprehensive developmental and medical history examination.
Strengths-Based Assessment
Emerging assessment models emphasise the identification and documentation of strengths as a foundation for understanding and supporting twice-exceptional learners (Baum et al., 2014). These approaches include talent portfolio assessment collecting evidence of exceptional abilities across contexts, dynamic assessment examining learning potential and response to instruction, and ecological assessment evaluating performance across multiple contexts.
Cultural Responsiveness in Assessment
The identification of twice-exceptional learners from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds requires careful attention to cultural factors that may influence both the expression and recognition of exceptionalities (Ford, 2012). This includes recognising cultural expressions of giftedness that may differ from dominant cultural norms, considering language in assessment including use of interpreters and culturally appropriate measures, integrating family and community perspectives on abilities and challenges, and implementing bias-reduction strategies using multiple measures and approaches. It is essential to understand that different cultures may recognise and value different types of exceptional abilities whilst acknowledging varying cultural attitudes toward disability and neurological differences.
Evidence-Based Support Approaches
This section consolidates all support and programming approaches, providing comprehensive guidance for educators and support professionals.
The Strengths-Based Support Framework
Contemporary research supports strengths-based support approaches that leverage the exceptional abilities of twice-exceptional learners while providing appropriate accommodations for their challenges. These approaches represent a fundamental shift from deficit-focused models that historically dominated special education practice.
Core Principles of Strengths-Based Support
The Talent Development Model provides a comprehensive framework (Baum et al., 2014) built upon five core principles. These include systematic talent identification regardless of overall academic performance, strength-based support that uses strengths to address challenges, environmental modification to support talent expression whilst minimising challenge impact, self-advocacy development enabling learners to understand and communicate their needs, and compensation strategy instruction teaching learners to use strengths to address challenges.
Research evidence demonstrates that students receiving strengths-based support show greater academic growth and achievement, improved self-concept and motivation, and better long-term educational and career outcomes compared to those receiving traditional deficit-focused approaches (Gierczyk & Hornby, 2021).
Population-Specific Adaptations
While the strengths-based framework applies to all twice-exceptional learners, specific adaptations are beneficial for different neurodivergent profiles.
Support for Twice-Exceptional Autistic Students
Research has identified specific strategies that are particularly effective for twice-exceptional autistic students (Reis et al., 2023). These include special interest integration incorporating areas of intense interest into academic content, social skills instruction within meaningful contexts rather than isolated training, sensory accommodations and environmental modifications to reduce sensory distress, structured environments that reduce anxiety whilst allowing talent expression, and visual supports to enhance comprehension and organisation.
Support for Twice-Exceptional ADHD Students
Effective support for twice-exceptional ADHD students includes (Gierczyk & Hornby, 2021) executive function support through explicit instruction and technological tools, movement integration into learning experiences, interest-based learning that leverages areas of high engagement, flexible pacing that accommodates attention patterns, and positive behavioural support that recognises the interaction between ADHD characteristics and exceptional abilities.
Support for Twice-Exceptional Students with Learning Differences
Students with specific learning differences require targeted support (Wormald et al., 2014) including multisensory instruction engaging multiple sensory modalities, assistive technology that supports areas of challenge whilst allowing demonstration of abilities, alternative assessment that accommodates learning differences, and compensation strategy training using strengths to address challenges.
Educational Programming Models
Inclusive Programming with Specialised Services
Contemporary best practice emphasises inclusive programming that supports twice-exceptional learners in general education settings whilst providing necessary specialised services (Gierczyk & Hornby, 2021). Universal Design for Learning creates accessible environments with multiple means of representation, engagement, and expression. Differentiated instruction is tailored to individual needs and abilities, various learning styles and preferences, and different rates of learning progression. Collaborative teaching brings together general education expertise, gifted education expertise, special education expertise, and related services specialists. Flexible grouping allows students to work with different peers based on specific needs, experience both challenge and support, and develop social connections across ability levels.
Practical Implementation Strategies
Successful implementation requires individualised education plans that address both exceptional abilities and support needs, project-based learning allowing multiple methods of demonstrating understanding, advanced opportunities in strength areas alongside support in challenge areas, technology integration enabling compensation and talent expression, and regular progress monitoring with adjustments based on response to intervention.
Stakeholder Perspectives and Experiences
Student Voice and Self-Advocacy
The perspectives of twice-exceptional students themselves provide crucial insights into their experiences and needs. Qualitative research reveals consistent themes (D’Souza, 2014) including identity complexity in understanding and integrating multiple identities, masking and authenticity pressures leading to exhaustion, educational mismatches failing to address full profiles, and social isolation in finding accepting peer groups.
Self-advocacy development is critical, requiring self-understanding of personal profiles, communication skills for expressing needs, rights awareness of available accommodations, and strategic thinking for navigating complex systems (Krausz, 2019).
Family Perspectives and Experiences
Families of twice-exceptional individuals play crucial roles as advocates, supporters, and partners. Research reveals both challenges and strengths (Trail, 2022). Families face challenges including navigation of complex systems, professional education needs, service coordination responsibilities, and the emotional impact of advocacy processes. At the same time, they demonstrate significant strengths including deep knowledge of their children, persistence in advocacy, creative problem-solving, and community-building efforts.
Supporting families requires comprehensive information resources about twice-exceptionality, resource guides for navigating educational and support systems, family education programmes building knowledge and advocacy skills, information in multiple languages and formats, and connection with other families and support networks.
Mental Health and Wellbeing
Psychological Profiles and Risk Factors
Twice-exceptional individuals often present complex psychological profiles requiring careful assessment and support. Research consistently identifies several mental health challenges more prevalent among twice-exceptional individuals (Ronksley-Pavia, 2015), including anxiety disorders related to perfectionism and social difficulties, depression particularly during adolescence, attention and executive functioning challenges, sensory processing differences, and social communication challenges.
Unique risk factors include identity confusion about capabilities and place in the world, perfectionism creating anxiety and avoidance, social isolation due to difficulty finding accepting peer groups, academic frustration from inconsistent performance, and masking exhaustion from maintaining compensatory strategies (Abraham, 2025).
Protective Factors and Resilience
Research has identified protective factors at both individual and environmental levels (Baum et al., 2014; Silverman, 2013). Individual protective factors include self-awareness enabling effective self-advocacy, special interests and talents that provide motivation and a positive identity, cognitive flexibility for adapting to challenges, problem-solving skills applicable to personal difficulties, and a sense of humour as a coping mechanism. Environmental protective factors include supportive relationships with understanding individuals, appropriate educational programming that addresses both abilities and needs, mental health support from knowledgeable professionals, community connections that provide meaningful contribution opportunities, and advocacy support for navigating systems.
Therapeutic Approaches
Several therapeutic approaches have shown effectiveness for twice-exceptional individuals (Ronksley-Pavia, 2015). These include modified Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy addressing perfectionism and anxiety whilst recognising cognitive strengths, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy helping individuals accept differences whilst committing to valued actions, social skills training particularly beneficial for autistic individuals, executive function coaching for developing organisational skills, and mindfulness-based approaches for emotional regulation and stress management.
Professional Development and Capacity Building
This section consolidates all professional development content, addressing current gaps and effective approaches.
Current Training Gaps
Preparing professionals to work effectively with twice-exceptional learners is a significant challenge, with substantial gaps across multiple disciplines.
Pre-Service Teacher Preparation
Teacher preparation programs typically provide little or no specific content on twice-exceptionality (Hopwood, 2019). Common gaps include siloed training in gifted and special education without integration, limited practical application of theoretical knowledge, inadequate field experiences with twice-exceptional learners, and a lack of assessment of twice-exceptional knowledge.
Professional Development for Practising Educators
Professional development for practising educators faces several limitations (Matthews & McKinney, 2025) including limited availability particularly in rural areas, variability in program quality, sustainability issues with one-time events, limited follow-up support, and a lack of systematic evaluation.
Educator Perspectives and Attitudes
Studies of teacher knowledge and attitudes reveal (Hopwood, 2019) limited understanding of twice-exceptionality concepts, conflicting beliefs about the co-occurrence of abilities and disabilities, gaps in teacher preparation program, and variable attitudes toward twice-exceptional learners. These findings underscore the urgent need for comprehensive professional development.
Effective Professional Development Models
Research has identified characteristics of effective professional development programmes (Hopwood, 2019; Matthews & McKinney, 2025):
Comprehensive Content Coverage
Effective programmes include theoretical foundations of twice-exceptionality, identification strategies including recognition of masking, evidence-based support approaches, assessment methods and interpretation, and collaboration skills across disciplines.
Pedagogical Approaches
Successful programmes utilise case-based learning using real-world examples, collaborative learning bringing together educators from different disciplines, ongoing support and consultation for implementation, and reflection opportunities on practice.
Mentorship and Coaching
Mentorship and coaching approaches show promise, including expert mentors guiding less experienced educators, peer coaching with collaborative relationships, instructional coaching with specialised support, and communities of practice providing ongoing collaboration opportunities.
Conclusion
This comprehensive examination of twice-exceptionality reveals a complex intersection of human potential and support needs that challenges traditional educational paradigms and demands sophisticated, nuanced responses from all stakeholders involved in supporting these individuals. The evidence synthesised from extensive research demonstrates that twice-exceptional learners represent far more than the simple co-occurrence of giftedness and disability—they embody the beautiful complexity of human neurodiversity and the extraordinary possibilities that emerge when we embrace rather than attempt to normalise cognitive differences.
The Imperative for Change
The research consistently demonstrates that current approaches to supporting twice-exceptional learners are inadequate, fragmented, and often counterproductive. Traditional deficit-focused models that attempt to accommodate differences rather than celebrating and accommodating them fail to recognise the fundamental truth that neurological variations are natural aspects of human diversity, not pathologies requiring correction. The evidence calls for nothing less than a paradigm shift towards neurodiversity-affirming, strengths-based approaches that honour the full complexity of twice-exceptional profiles.
The Promise of Twice-Exceptional Individuals
The evidence reveals that twice-exceptional individuals possess extraordinary potential for innovation, creativity, and contribution to society. Their unique cognitive profiles, characterised by the intersection of exceptional abilities and neurological differences, position them to offer perspectives and solutions that neurotypical individuals might never conceive. However, this potential can only be realised when we create environments that recognise, nurture, and support their complex needs.
The research demonstrates that when twice-exceptional individuals receive appropriate identification, evidence-based support, and strengths-based programming, they can achieve remarkable outcomes in education, career, and life satisfaction. Conversely, when their needs are misunderstood or ignored, they are at risk for underachievement, mental health challenges, and the tragic waste of extraordinary human potential.
The Complexity of Support Needs
Supporting twice-exceptional individuals requires unprecedented levels of sophistication and individualisation. The research reveals that one-size-fits-all approaches are not merely inadequate—they are actively harmful. Each twice-exceptional individual presents a unique profile of strengths, challenges, interests, and needs that demands personalised assessment, support, and accommodation approaches.
This complexity extends beyond the individual to encompass families, educators, and support systems that must develop new ways to understand and respond to neurodiversity. Families become expert advocates and coordinators of complex support networks. Educators must develop the skills to differentiate instruction to provide advanced challenges and necessary accommodations simultaneously. Support professionals must learn to work collaboratively across traditional disciplinary boundaries to address the multifaceted needs of twice-exceptional learners.
The Role of Technology and Innovation
The research highlights the transformative potential of technology in supporting twice-exceptional learners. From assistive technologies that level the playing field to advanced learning platforms that can accommodate complex profiles, technology offers unprecedented opportunities to personalise education and support. However, the evidence also reveals that technology is only as effective as the understanding and expertise of those who implement it.
Cultural Responsiveness and Equity
The research consistently demonstrates that twice-exceptionality intersects with cultural, linguistic, and socioeconomic diversity, creating additional layers of complexity and potential marginalisation. Supporting twice-exceptional learners from diverse backgrounds requires culturally responsive approaches that recognise and value different expressions of ability and different perspectives on disability and difference.
The Lifespan Perspective
One of the most critical insights from this research is the recognition that twice-exceptionality is a lifelong characteristic that requires ongoing understanding and support. The needs of twice-exceptional individuals evolve across developmental stages, but the fundamental pattern of exceptional abilities combined with support needs persists throughout life.
The Professional Development Imperative
Perhaps no finding from this research is more explicit than the urgent need for comprehensive professional development across all disciplines that work with twice-exceptional individuals. The evidence indicates that most educators, clinicians, and support professionals lack the knowledge and skills to effectively identify and support twice-exceptional learners.
The Vision for the Future
The ultimate vision that emerges from this research is of a society that recognises, celebrates, and supports the full spectrum of human cognitive diversity. It is a vision of educational systems that can simultaneously nurture exceptional abilities and provide necessary accommodations, of workplaces that value different ways of thinking and being, of communities that embrace neurodiversity as a source of strength and creativity.
In this vision, twice-exceptional individuals are not seen as puzzles to be solved or problems to be fixed, but as valuable contributors whose unique perspectives and abilities enrich our collective understanding and capability. They are supported from early childhood through adulthood by systems that understand their complexity and respond with sophistication and compassion.
This vision is not a utopian fantasy—it is an achievable goal that requires commitment, resources, and sustained effort from all sectors of society. The research provides the roadmap; what remains is the collective will to follow it.
Final Reflections
Twice-exceptionality represents both the most significant challenge and the greatest opportunity in contemporary education and human services. The challenge lies in developing systems sophisticated enough to recognise and support the complex needs of these learners while respecting their autonomy and celebrating their differences. The opportunity lies in unlocking the extraordinary potential of these individuals and in creating more inclusive, responsive, and practical approaches that benefit all learners.
The research synthesised in this report demonstrates that we have the knowledge needed to effectively support twice-exceptional learners. What we need now is the commitment to act on this knowledge, to transform systems and practices, and to create the conditions in which all twice-exceptional individuals can thrive.
Through sustained commitment to evidence-based practice, professional development, system-level change, and genuine partnership with twice-exceptional individuals and their families, we can create a future in which the duality of strengths and challenges that defines twice-exceptionality is recognised not as a burden to be managed but as a gift to be celebrated and nurtured. This is our challenge, our opportunity, and our responsibility.
Linked Posts
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